reliability of power plant facilities: research of metal aging processes and degradation of properties due to the impact of operational factors;
development and research of multifunctional materials and composites;
Testing of materials, assessment and analysis of their qualitative indicators.
RELIABILITY OF POWER PLANT FACILITIES
The Laboratory carries out research aimed at the investigation of ageing processes of steel and special alloys that are used as constructional elements for power plants and at studying patterns of aging processes, solving issues concerning control of these processes and service life. Applying mechanical tests, X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and elemental composition analysis, as well as optic and scanning electron microscopy, structural and property changes of aged steel and non-ferrous alloys are studied. Experimental and numerical methods are used to predict operational reliability taking into account material ageing processes and other operational factors. The implementation of the work focuses on the investigation of fundamental physical and chemical phenomena affecting structure and properties of metals.
TESTING OF MATERIALS, ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS OF THEIR QUALITATIVE INDICATORS
Researchers of the Laboratory provide accredited Laboratory services, and perform material testing and assessment of their qualitative conformity. In 2015, the Laboratory was reaccredited to comply with the LST EN ISO/IEC 17025 standard. As a result of successful collaboration with economic entities, the Laboratory conducts research and provides consults on the quality issues of product manufacturing.
The Laboratory is accredited to carry out tests on:
Plastic pipes;
Plastics and cellular plastics;
Pre-insulated pipes;
Masonry mortars and plastering mortars.
Laboratory researchers constantly analyze demands of clients and expand the scope of services provided both in accredited and non – accredited field. They successfully participated in the comparative testing in Germany (Kunststoff-Institut Lüdenscheid and DRRR), a high level of excellence was approved in the field of plastics testing – the certificates were granted.
Laboratory of Materials Research and Testing complies with the requirements of LST EN ISO/IEC 17025:2006 and is accredited to carry out test of building mortars, plastics pipes, pre-insulated pipes and refractory products.
The Laboratory carries out research aimed at the investigation of ageing processes of steel and special alloys that are used as constructional elements for power plants and at studying patterns of aging processes, solving issues concerning control of these processes and service life. Applying mechanical tests, X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and elemental composition analysis, as well as optic and scanning electron microscopy, structural and property changes of aged steel and non-ferrous alloys are studied. Experimental and numerical methods are used to predict operational reliability taking into account material ageing processes and other operational factors. The implementation of the work focuses on the investigation of fundamental physical and chemical phenomena affecting structure and properties of metals. In this research direction, researchers of the Laboratory participated in long-term institutional scientific research and experimental development programs: “Scientific research of safety important processes taking place in nuclear and thermal nuclear facilities” and “Research of processes of nuclear power plant operation decommissioning, nuclear waste and spent nuclear fuel management and radiation impact analysis”. In 2017-2021, the program “Development of future energy technologies, research on their safety and reliability” is being implemented. Further research is in progress on investigating the aging processes of construction materials used in power plant equipment.
In 2016, the project Service life assessment model for new generation steel funded by the Research Council of Lithuania was completed. The objective of the work was to investigate developments of structural changes in steel under high temperature and their influence on the mechanical characteristics and degradation parameters. The structural changes occurring under the influence of temperature were determined investigating phase transformations in steel by assessing the evolution of steel carbides and changes in crystal lattice parameters. Phase changes of steel at 600-700 °C was investigated by means of XRD, scanning electron microscopy and EDX methods. Due to chemical elements diffusion during steel ageing evolution of carbides occurs which manifests by changes in size, element composition and crystalline lattice parameters. The analysis M23C6 carbide lattice changes during high temperature aging revealed that these changes are characteristic for estimation the extent of steel degradation, and thus may be recommended instead of other structural investigation methods.
Johnson-Mehl-Avrami kinetic equation was applied for creating a kinetic model for predicting changes of carbide crystallographic parameters as well as steel mechanical properties taking into account aging temperature and time. It was determined that predicted tensile and creep properties of thermally aged samples correlate well with experimental data. Research results revealed that the developed method rather well defines changes of mechanical properties at thermal ageing and could be relevant in estimating energy facilities ageing-related degradation and could be applied in forecasting their lifetime evaluation.
Fig. 1. Universal dynamic testing machine
The Laboratory continued the research initiated by IAEA in 1998 related to degradation impact of hydrogen and hydrides on zirconium alloys. Analysis of Nuclear fuel Cladding Resistance to Hydride Cracking during Long-Term Storage coordinated by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was completed in 2016. The objective of this work was to develop experimental procedures in order to assess conditions of hydride cracking in zirconium alloy fuel cladding – threshold stress intensity factor values and temperature limits, under which failure of fuel cladding may occur. By applying controlled hydriding, special construction samples were made of zirconium alloy fuel cladding, in which by changing stress levels, hydride cracking process under given temperatures was studied. The research is important for solving the issues of ensuring safe operation of nuclear power plants and assessing the resistance of fuel cladding to the hydride cracking during long-term storage of spent nuclear fuel.
In 2020, researchers of the Laboratory together with the team of the Laboratory of Nuclear Installation Safety continued the European Union financed programme Horizon 2020 project INcreasing Safety in NPPs by Covering gaps in Environmental Fatigue Assessment, INCEFA-PLUS. The objective of the project INCEFA-PLUS is to obtain new experimental data and submit recommendations by evaluating fatigue induced degradation in the nuclear reactor operating conditions. The impact of strain and stress mode, hold time, and the surface roughness on the fatigue life of austenitic steels will be investigated. Information about the possible fatigue degradation mechanisms will be obtained after conducting the microstructure and a fractographic research of the tested samples using optical and scanning electron microscopy, XRD and EDX analysis. Fatigue resistance tests are performed using a servohydraulic universal dynamic testing machine Instron (Model 8801, 100kN) and Wave Matrix software for creating test programs. The obtained experimental data were standardized and presented in the online fatigue strength database MatDB (JRC, Institute for Energy and Transport). The research will seek to fill in the current gaps in the existing data: create fatigue assessment procedures that would as much as possible comply with the real NPP operational conditions. During the project, a modified environmental fatigue assessment procedures will be created, which will allow a more accurate estimation of the mean strain, hold time and surface roughness influence. This will enable better management of nuclear facility components ensuring a long-term safe operation of the NPP.
In 2016, a subsidy-funded scientific Research of impact of nano-sized modified admixtures on the structure of composite materials was completed. The work aims at investigating the structure of natural and synthetic layered nano silicates and optimizing the modification methodology; it also seeks to research the impact of modified silicates and complex nano-sized admixtures on the morphology of cement composite materials.
The influence of modification conditions on the structural changes of nano-sized admixtures (natural and synthetic nano-silicates) was identified, i.e. on the distance among tetrahedral layers, and on the nature of modifier and nano-silicates interaction. Modification methodology of nano-silicate as nano-filler for constructional materials was optimized; it can also be applied in implementing other analogous research and continuing activities in the field of new composites development with the assigned tasks.
The structural changes of the cement composition with nano-admixture – organically modified layered nano-silicate – depending on several factors: nano-silicate preparation, its concentration, and concentration of the used organic modifier were estimated. Dependence of morphological properties of cement compositions as well as mechanical and sorption properties from the additionally introduced nano-additive – the concentration of nano-sized silicon oxide particles, was investigated as well. Silicon oxide particles encourage the development of a cement composition with better mechanical properties. Obtained results revealed that complex usage of nano-sized additives – the modified silicate and silicon oxide – in the cement composition enables development a mechanically strong and water-resistant cement matrix, which may be used as a bounder in creating construction materials operated under increased moisture conditions.
Replacing part of the cement with alternative and environmentally friendly materials results in a composite material whose structural properties remain unchanged or even better.
Fig. 2. Structure model of modified layered silicate and SEM photograph
In 2020 the researchers of the Laboratory together with participants from other laboratories have started to implement Priority 1 of the European Union Funds Investment Operational Program 2014–2020 “Promotion of Research, Experimental Development and Innovation” 01.2.2-CPVA-K-703 Measures “Centers of Excellence and Innovation and Promotion of Technology Transfer Centers ”project“ Execution of R&D activities of the Center of Excellence by creating and testing an innovative prototype for the production of gaseous biofuels”.
The project will address issues such as CO2 reduction (biomethane gas is used in an environmentally sustainable way), waste recycling and management (technology allows the diversification of the types of raw materials/waste used), efficient energy and fuel production from biomass/waste (three-generation: electricity, heat and valuable by-product is biomethane).
The researchers of the Laboratory will synthesize a new type of catalyst with a high specific surface area porous heterostructure, which will be used for CO2 / CO methanation and will increase the efficiency and economy of the biomethane formation process. The developed catalysts will be characterized by investigation of their surface morphology and structure properties using SEM / EDX, XRD, N2 physical sorption-desorption, thermal analysis, and other methods.
Fig.3. N2 sorption-desorption isotherms and SEM photographs of initial material and synthesized porous heterostructure
The European Commission sets a target by the 2025 to reduce pollution related with plastics industry and to increase recycling of plastics waste and secondary usage in EU member states. The problem is relevant in Lithuania as well since there is lack of relevantly recycled waste, whereas producers lack good quality recycled raw material. The quality of plastic waste recycling is directly related with their relevant identification.
In 2016, laboratory researchers applying equipment of integrated science, studies and business centre “Santaka”, improved the methodology for plastics identification, which was used to identify polymer waste. Sorted plastic wastes are used as secondary raw material for many products. This not only protects nature and primary natural resources, but also enables everyone to economize.
Fig. 4. Test for leak tightness of plastic pipes
The Laboratory conducts applied research under contracts with companies and organizations:
„Kauno arena“ – corrosion failure analysis of galvanized steel hot water supply pipelines and ethylene glycol supply pipelines used in air conditioning system” samples of steel galvanized pipes, used in a hot water plumbing system, were investigated. Analysis of corrosion failures was carried out, identifying main corrosion factors and presenting recommendations.
„Energijos skirstymo operatorius” – study of fusion of polyethylene pipe joints used in gas supply system.
„Lietuvos energijos gamyba“ – identifying the cause of high voltage power line failure.
„ORLEN Lietuva“ – examination of pipeline elements and remaining lifetime assessment.
The equipment of LEI National Open Access Scientific Research Centre for Future Energy Technologies was used for the research.
Publications
2024
Kubiliūtė R., Švedaitė E., Pitak I.[LEI], Sholokhova A.[LEI].Textile ash waste utilization in cement stone
In: Book of abstracts of 2nd Central and Eastern European Conference on Physical Chemistry & Material Science (CEEC-PCMS2). Kaunas: Kaunas University of Technology, 2024, p. 101-101. ISBN 978-609-02-1870-9, eISBN 978-609-02-1869-3.
Dičkuvienė Kalpokaitė R.[LEI], Baltušnikas A.[LEI], Sholokhova A.[LEI].
Comparison of changes in the morphology of two straw varieties: the impact of treatment methods
In: Abstract Book 4th International Conference Strategies toward Green Deal Implementation Water, Raw Materials & Energy 14 – 15 December 2023. Cracow: Polish Academy of Sciences, 2023, p. 100-100. ISBN 978-83-67606-27-1.
Denafas G.[LEI], Sholokhova A., Makarevičius V.[LEI], Ivanauskas R..The impact of biodegradable waste shredding on the quality of the produced compost
In: Linnaeus Eco-Tech '22: 13th international conference on establishment of cooperation between companies and institutions in the Nordic countries, the Baltic Sea region and the world, Kalmar, Sweden, November 21-23, 2022: book of abstracts. Kalmar: Linnaeus University, 2022, p. 1-1. ISBN 978-91-89460-85-0.
Pitak I.[LEI], Čėsnienė J.[LEI], Kalpokaitė Dičkuvienė R.[LEI].Analytical study of the features of oil shale ash waste
In: Book of abstracts: Linnaeus ECO-TECH '22. 13th International conference on establishment of cooperation between companies and institutions in the Nordic countries, the Baltic Sea region and the world. Linnaeus Eco-Tech 2022, November 21-23. Kalmar: Linnaeus University, 2022, p. 1-1. ISBN 978-91-89460-85-0.
Skvorčinskienė R.[LEI], Urbonavičius M.[LEI], Kiminaitė I.[LEI], Maziukienė M.[LEI], Vorotinskienė L.[LEI], Striūgas N.[LEI], Zakarauskas K.[LEI], Makarevičius V.[LEI], Poškaitė A., Bašinskas M..
Investigation of vapour film formation on nanolayer surfaces to reduce drag on marine vessels
In: Book of abstracts 17th Conference on sustainable development of energy, water and environment systems November 6-10 2022 Paphos, Cyprus. Zagreb: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, 2022, p. 473-473. ISSN 2706-3690.
Denafas G.[LEI], Pitak I.[LEI], Kruopienė J., Streikus D., Romaneckas K., Jasinskas A..
Comparison of stored and renewable energy potentials in landfill conditions: case study for Kaunas waste management region, Lithuania
In: Proceedings SUM2022 /6TH Symposium on circular economy and urban mining / CAPRI, Italy / 18-20 MAY 2022. Capri: CISA, 2022, p. 1-7..
Šleiniūtė A., Mumladze T., Pitak I.[LEI], Denafas G..
Recyclability of separate collected municipal solid waste fractions: a case study for Kaunas, Lithuania
In: Thessaloniki 2021: 8th international conference on sustainable solid waste management, 23-26 June, Thessaloniki, Greece. Thessaloniki: 2021, p. 1-2..
Pitak I.[LEI], Denafas G.[LEI], Kalpokaitė Dičkuvienė R.[LEI].
Extraction of high calorific fraction from municipal solid waste during mechanical biological treatment process
In: The 17th International Conference of Young Scientists on Energy and Natural Sciences Issues (CYSENI 2021) Kaunas, Lithuania, May 24-28, 2021. Kaunas: Lietuvos energetikos institutas, 2021, p. 44-54. ISSN 1822-7554.
Brostow W., Cañadas I., Faltynowicz H., Levinskas R.[LEI], Garcia J. R..
Fire resistance of materials
In: Seventh Internacional Caucasian Symposium on Polymers and Advanced Materials. Tbilisi: Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University Press, 2021, 14, p. 1-1. ISBN 978-9941-491-09-2.
Pitak I.[LEI], Denafas G.[LEI], Kriūkienė R.[LEI].
About solid recovered fuel: chemical characteristics and role in waste management system
In: EYEC monograph: 9th European young engineers conference, [19-21 April 2021, Warsaw, Poland]. Warsaw: Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology Waryńskiego, 2021, Vol. 7, 11.5, p. 165. ISBN 978-83-936575-9-9.
Pitak I.[LEI], Baltušnikas A.[LEI], Čėsnienė J.[LEI], Denafas G.[LEI].
Opportunity production solid recovery fuel from refuse derived fuel and use it as an alternative fuel for the cement industry of Lithuania
In: Conference proceedings 2 nd International Conference Strategies toward Green Deal Implementation – Water, Raw Materials & Energy 8 – 10 December 2021. Cracow: Publishing House Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, 2021, 130, p. 1-1. ISBN 978-83-963280-3-8.
Pitak I.[LEI], Denafas G.[LEI], Lukošiūtė I.[LEI].
Analysis MSW fraction after separation with goal to have solid recovery fuel
In: Book of abstracts: Linnaeus ECO-TECH '20 12th International conference on establishment of cooperation between companies and institutions in the Nordic countries, the Baltic Sea region and the world. Kalmar: Linnaeus University, 2020, p. 1-1. ISBN 978-91-89081-03-1.
Dundulis G.[LEI], Grybėnas A.[LEI], Bruchhausen M., Cicero R., Mottershead K., Huotilainen C., Le-Rouxs J.-Ch., Vankeerberghen M..INCEFA-PLUS project: review of the test programme and main results
In: Proceedings 29th International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials Brno, Czech Republic, EU, May 20 - 22, 2020. Brno: 2020, p. 410-415. Scopus. ISSN 2694-9296 ISBN 978-80-87294-97-0.
Pitak I.[LEI], Baltušnikas A.[LEI], Denafas G.[LEI].
Analysis of separated waste for the preparation of solid recovered fuels
In: Conference proceedings 1 st International Conference Strategies toward Green Deal Implementation - Water and Raw Materials 14 – 16 December 2020 (Online). Cracow: Publishing House Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, 2020, p. 124. ISBN 978-83-959215-5-1.
2019
Lukošiūtė S.[LEI], Baltušnikas A.[LEI], Čėsnienė J.[LEI], Dičkuvienė Kalpokaitė R.[LEI].
Porous montmorillonite heterostructure: synthesis, structural and thermal characterization
In: Book of abstracts of the 5th Central and Eastern European Conference on Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (CEEC-TAC5) and 14th Mediterranean Conference on Calorimetry and Thermal Analysis (Medicta2019). Roma: Central and Eastern European Committee for Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (CEEC-TAC), 2019, PS2.011, p. 301-301. ISBN 9783940237590.
Janulionis R.[LEI], Dundulis G.[LEI], Grybėnas A.[LEI].
Numerical Investigation of Hydrogen Influence on Stress Intensity Factor of Zirconium Alloy
In: Proceedings of 23rd International Conference “MECHANIKA 2018”. Druskininkai, 18 gegužės 2018 . Kaunas: Kauno technologijos universitetas, 2018, p. 58-61. ISSN 1822-2951.
Levinskas R.[LEI], Kasiulis E..
Lietuvos mokslas – ateities energetikai
In: Investuok. Vilnius: UAB „Leidybos studija“, 2018, Nr. 3, p. 54-55. ISSN 1822-6779.
Lukauskaitė R., Černašėjus O., Škamat J., Asadauskas S., Ručinskienė A., Dičkuvienė Kalpokaitė R.[LEI], Višniakov N..
Improving sliding wear resistance of Al-Mg parts by plasma spraying
In: 12th International Symposium of Croatian Metallurgical Society (SHMD'2016), Šibenik, Croatia, June 19–23. Materials and Metallurgy: book of abstracts. Šibenik: Croatian Metallurgical Society (CMS), 2016, p. 558-558..
Baltušnikas A.[LEI], Grybėnas A.[LEI], Kriūkienė R.[LEI], Makarevičius V.[LEI], Makštys A.[LEI].
Structural Characterization of Montmorillonite Intercalated with N-cetylpyridinium Chloride and Methyl Benzyl Di-octadecyl Ammonium Chloride
In: Book of abstracts of the 7th Baltic Conference on Silicate Materials BaltSilica 2016. 26-27 May. . Kaunas: Kauno technologijos universitetas, 2016, p. 1-1. ISSN 2243-6057.
Dundulis G.[LEI], Janulionis R.[LEI], Makarevičius V.[LEI], Grybėnas A.[LEI].
Fracture toughness numerical modelling of the martensitic chromium stell
In: 25th Anniversary International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials. Conference proceedings May 25th - 27th 2016 Hotel Voronez I, Brno, Czech Republic. Ostrava: Tanger Ltd, 2016, p. 592-597. ISBN 978-80-87294-67-3.
Janulionis R.[LEI], Dundulis G.[LEI], Grybėnas A.[LEI].
Numerical simulation of high temperature fatigue test of the welded steel P91
In: 23rd Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology Manchester (SMIRT23). United Kingdom: 2015, p. 1-8..
Dundulis G.[LEI], Janulionis R.[LEI], Grybėnas A.[LEI].
Deterministic-probabilistic structural integrity analysis of the gas transmission pipelines
In: Proceedings of the 48th ESReDA Seminar, May 28-29, 2015. Wroclaw, Poland: 2015, p. 1-8..
Makarevičius V.[LEI], Baltušnikas A.[LEI], Lukošiūtė I.[LEI], Kriūkienė R.[LEI], Grybėnas A.[LEI].
Transformation kinetic M23C6 carbide lattice parameters in ferritic-martensitic P91 steel during thermal ageing
In: 24th International conference on Metallurgy and Materials. Conference proceedings June 3-5, 2015. Brno Czech Republic: TANGER, 2015, p. 773-778. ISBN 978-80-87294-62-8. .
Grybėnas A.[LEI], Kriūkienė R.[LEI], Makarevičius V.[LEI].
Evaluation of conditions for hydrogen induced degradation of zirconium alloys during fuel operation and storage
In: Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency. Vienna: IAEA, 2015, p. 1-72. ISSN 1011-4289 ISBN 978–92–0-110715-2.
Tamošiūnas A.[LEI], Valatkevičius P.[LEI], Grigaitienė V.[LEI], Valinčius V.[LEI], Levinskas R.[LEI].
Biomass conversion to hydrogen-rich synthesis fuels using water steam plasma
In: The sixth international renewable energy congress. Sousse-Tunisia: Tunisas, 2015, p. 1-7..
Kalpokaitė Dičkuvienė R.[LEI], Lukošiūtė I.[LEI], Brinkienė K.[LEI], Baltušnikas A.[LEI], Čėsnienė J.[LEI].
Properties of waste catalyst-cement mortars: impact of organoclay type
In: Fresenius Environmental Bulletin. Germany: Parlar Scientific Publications, 2015, Vol. 24, No. 10b, p. 3460-3466. ISSN 1018-4619.
Dičkuvienė R.[LEI], Brinkienė K.[LEI], Čėsnienė J.[LEI], Kėželis R.[LEI].
Application of Fibre Produced by Plasma Spray Method in Cementitious Composition
In: CIMTEC 2010 12th International Ceramics Congress June 6-11, 2010. Montecatini Terme: 2010, Session CN-6 Applications CN:P01, p. 154-154..
INCEFA-PLUS delivers new experimental data and new guidelines for assessment of environmental fatigue damage to ensure safe operation of European nuclear power plants.
Austenitic sMore
The measures in this project allow the "Centre for Thermochemical Conversion of Solid Fuels" to strengthen its position on the European level, integrating its activities in the EuropeMore
The project seeks to develop specialized concrete for the long-term storage of hazardous waste, which can be immobilized in concrete containers or directly in the concrete mass.
DeMore
Components for nuclear reactors are made from zirconium alloys because they have a low thermal neutron capture cross-section, high resistance to corrosion in high temperature water anMore
The major goal of the this CRP is to develop experimental procedures for the reproducible measurements of delayed hydride cracking velocity of zirconium alloy cladding. In this procesMore
COST Action MP0701 is concerned with polymers, which are reinforced with nano particles. Polymer Nanocomposites are blends of different polymer matrices with nanometre sized functionaMore
The main objective of the Action is to develop an innovative 'integrated toolbox' of predictive methods/models and targeted invasive and non-invasive measurement techniques, improvingMore
The main objective of the COST Action 523 was the development of nanostructured materials with new and unique structural and functional properties in European industries, combined witMore
Researchers from the National Institute of Materials Science at the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (UNMA MPI) and the Lithuanian Energy Institute (LEI) have been working to cMore
Project summary:
The LIFE programme contributes to the European Union becoming a climate-neutral and sustainable society, supports the implementation of EU climate policy iMore
Lithuanian Energy Institute together with its partner Astra LT AB carried out the project „Development of a prototype LDX 2101 duplex stainless steel frame for a semi-trailer tanker“.More
UAB Enerstena together with its partner Lithuanian Energy Institute (LEI) and Kaunas University of Technology (KTU) is implementing the project "Multifunctional Biomass Energy TechnolMore
Lietuvos energetikos institutas įgyvendina projektą „Kompetencijos centro MTEP veiklų vykdymas, sukuriant ir išbandant inovatyvų dujinių biodegalų gamybos prototipą“ Nr. 01.2.2-CPMore
On 7 February 2018, the Lithuanian Energy Institute (LEI) and the public institution Central Project Management Agency (CPVA) signed a contract for the implementation of the projeMore
This project brought together five scientific institutions - Vilnius Gediminas Technical University (VGTU), VGTU Institute of Thermal Insulation (VGTU-TI), Lithuanian Energy InstituteMore
Determination of tensile, compression, bending, ring stiffness, ring flexibility and other special properties. Determination of the characteristics of small metal samples in static or low-cycle loads conditions.
Specific surface area determination: BET, Langmiuro, STSA, DFT and BJH methods.
Microporous Surface Analysis: NLDFT, QSDFT, Monte-Carlo, t-plot, alpha, MP, DR and DA methods.
Investigation of corrosion processes of metals, corrosion kinetics, effectiveness evaluation of corrosion inhibitors and protective coatings, evaluation of electrochemical parameters (corrosion current, current density, polarization resistance, kinetics of electrodynamic processes, diffusion, mass transfer, etc.).
